Accessing Science of Learning Literature

Many teaching recommendations are based on findings from the science of learning, which has its basis in educational and cognitive psychology. The Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (SoTL) also often draws from and is framed by key concepts in these fields, yet for teachers and researchers outside these disciplines, the search for appropriate literature can seem very time-consuming.

If you are new to this literature, the following secondary sources may be helpful as 鈥渆ntry points.鈥� Scroll to the accordion list for research and meta-analyses on common topics of interest for faculty. To improve your teaching, consider introducing your students to concepts like metacognition with help from this student handout, and discover ideas for incorporating it into your teaching through this metacognition menu. 

For a deeper dive into the science of learning literature, consider these recommended articles and books:

 

  • These sources are a good place to start if you鈥檙e investigating common learning strategies and student learning behaviors.

    • Janssen, E. M., van Gog, T., van de Groep, L., de Lange, A. J., Knopper, R. L., Onan, E., ... & de Bruin, A. B. (2023). The role of mental effort in students鈥� perceptions of the effectiveness of interleaved and blocked study strategies and their willingness to use them.  
    • Rea, S. D., Wang, L., Muenks, K., & Yan, V. X. (2022). Students can (mostly) recognize effective learning, so why do they not do it?  
    • Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students鈥� learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58.
    • Kornell, N., & Bjork, R.A. (2007). The promise and perils of self-regulated study. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14, 219鈥�224.
    • McCabe, J. (2011). Metacognitive awareness of learning strategies in undergraduates. Memory & Cognition, 39(3), 462-476.
    • Entwistle, N. (2019). Psychology of Education Review, 43(1), 9鈥�19. 
    • Geller, J., Toftness, A. R., Armstrong, P. I., Carpenter, S. K., Manz, C. L., Coffman, C. R., & Lamm, M. H. (2018). Study strategies and beliefs about learning as a function of academic achievement and achievement goals. Memory, 26(5), 683鈥�690.
    • Morehead, K., Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Blasiman, R., & Hollis, R. B. (2019). Note-taking habits of 21st century college students: implications for student learning, memory, and achievement. Memory, 27(6), 807-819.
    • Brady, A. C., Kulesza, A. E., Hensley, L. C., Wolters, C. A., Sovic, D. M., & Breitenberger, C. A. (2022). College Student Affairs Journal, 40(1), 17-31. 

  • Self-regulated learning is directed by the learner, who develops strategic goals, initiates productive learning behaviors, and reflects on the outcomes. The cognitive aspect of self-regulated learning includes metacognition, where a learner plans for, monitors, and reflects on their own learning and studying. Consider introducing students to the concept of metacognition through this student handout, and discover ideas for incorporating it into your teaching through this metacognition menu.

    • Zimmerman, B.J. (1990). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: an overview. Educational Psychologist 25, 3鈥�17.
    • Bjork, R. A., Dunlosky, J., & Kornell, N. (2013). Self-regulated learning: Beliefs, techniques, and illusions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 417鈥�444.
    • Schraw, G. (1998). Promoting general metacognitive awareness. Instructional Science, 26(1-2), 113-125.
    • Pintrich, P. R. (2004). A conceptual framework for assessing motivation and self-regulated learning in college students. Educational Psychology Review, 16(4), 385-407.
    • Kuhn, D. (2000) Metacognitive Development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(5),178-181.
    • Nilson, L. (2013). Creating self-regulated learners. Herndon, VA: Stylus.

  • Learning first requires attention, yet many things compete for our students' attention. These sources describe research on attention and multitasking.

    • Andrade, J. (2010). What does doodling do? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24, 100-106.
    • Bantoft, C., Summers, M.J., Tranent, P.J., Palmer, M.A., Cooley, P.D. & Pedersen, S.J. (2016) Effect of standing or walking at a workstation on cognitive function: a randomized counterbalanced trial. Human Factors, 58, 140鈥�149.
    • Finley, J. R., Benjamin, A. S., McCarley, J. S. (2014). Metacognition of multitasking: How well do we predict the costs of divided attention? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 20, 158鈥�165.
    • Ravizza, S. M., Uitvlugt, M. G., & Fenn, K. M. (2017). Logged in and zoned out: How laptop internet use relates to classroom learning. Psychological Science, 28(2), 171-180.
    • Wammes, J. D., Ralph, B. C., Mills, C., Bosch, N., Duncan, T. L., & Smilek, D. (2019). Disengagement during lectures: Media multitasking and mind wandering in university classrooms. Computers & Education, 132, 76-89.

  • Evidence suggests that intentionally embedding challenges and ill-defined problems into the curriculum can increase student learning, even when students fail to solve those problems. These articles lend credence to the axiom 鈥渕aking mistakes is part of learning.鈥�

    • Kapur, M. (2016). Examining productive failure, productive success, unproductive failure, and unproductive success in learning. Educational Psychologist, 51(2), 289鈥�299.
    • Loibl, K. & Leuders, T. (2019). How to make failure productive: Fostering learning from errors through elaboration prompts. Learning and Instruction, 62, 1-10.
    • Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (2011). Making things hard on yourself, but in a good way: Creating desirable difficulties to enhance learning. Psychology and the Real World: Essays Illustrating Fundamental Contributions to Society, 2, 59-68.
    • Henry, M.A., Shorter, S., Charkoudian, L., Heemstra, J.M., & Corwin, L.A. (2019). FAIL is not a four-letter word: A theoretical framework for exploring undergraduate students鈥� approaches to academic challenges and responses to failure in STEM learning. CBE-Life Sciences Education, 18(1), 1鈥�17.

  • Practicing retrieving information from memory, whether through frequent low-stakes quizzing, student self-quizzing, teaching a friend, or another means, has been found to increase performance on assessments, especially when separated into several sessions. See these articles from the cognitive psychology literature:

    • Bozeman, R., Mallett, R. K., Mitchell, L., & Tindale, R. S. (2024). May we take the test as a group? Examining group processes and member learning in a collaborative testing environment. Active Learning in Higher Education, 25(3), 439-454.
    • Sotola, L. K., & Crede, M. (2021). Regarding class quizzes: A meta-analytic synthesis of studies on the relationship between frequent low-stakes testing and class performance. Educational Psychology Review, 33, 407-426.
    • Karpicke, J. D. (2012). Retrieval-based learning: Active retrieval promotes meaningful learning. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21,157鈥�163.
    • Rawson, K., Dunlosky, J., & Sciartelli, S. (2013). The power of successive relearning: improving performance on course exams and long-term retention. Educational Psychology Review, 25(4), 523-548.
    • Koh, A. W. L., Lee, S. C., & Lim, S. W. H. (2018). The learning benefits of teaching: A retrieval practice hypothesis. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 32(3), 401-410.
    • Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2013). The relative benefits of learning by teaching and teaching expectancy. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 38(4), 281-288.
    • Szpunar, K. K., Khan, N. Y., & Schacter, D. L. (2013). Interpolated memory tests reduce mind wandering and improve learning of online lectures. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(16), 6313-6317.
    • Karpicke, J. D., & Smith, M. A. (2012). Separate mnemonic effects of retrieval practice and elaborative encoding. Journal of Memory and Language, 67, 17鈥�29.
    • Kornell, N., Hays, M. J., & Bjork, R. A. (2009). Unsuccessful retrieval attempts enhance subsequent learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35(4), 989鈥�998.
    • Blunt, J. R., & Karpicke, J. D. (2014). Learning with retrieval-based concept mapping. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(3), 849.

  • Motivation is a complex concept, but many behaviors and cognitive processes associated with the motivation to learn can themselves be learned. To read more about motivation research see:

    • Fong, C. J., Altan, S., Gonzales, C., Kirmizi, M., Adelugba, S. F., & Kim, Y.-E. (2024). Stay motivated and carry on: A meta-analytic investigation of motivational regulation strategies and academic achievement, motivation, and self-regulation correlates. Journal of Educational Psychology. Advance online publication. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/edu000886 
    • Pintrich, P.R. (2004). A conceptual framework for assessing motivation and self-regulated learning in college students. Educational Psychology Review 16, 385鈥�407 (2004).
    • Weiner, B. (2010). The development of an attribution-based theory of motivation: A history of ideas. Educational Psychologist, 45(1), 28-36.
    • Vallerand, R. J. (2000). Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 312-318.
    • Lazowski, R.A. & Hulleman, C. (2016). Motivation interventions in education: A meta-analytic review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602.
    • Dweck, C. S. (2008). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House Digital, Inc.. 
    • Chen, P., Powers, J. T., Katragadda, K. R., Cohen, G. L., & Dweck, C. S. (2020). A strategic mindset: An orientation toward strategic behavior during goal pursuit. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117(25),14066-14072.
    • Duane F., S., & Jenefer, H. (2008). Control, motivation, affect, and strategic self-regulation in the college classroom: A multidimensional phenomenon. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(2), 443鈥�459.
    • Lovett, M. C., Bridges, M. W., DiPietro, M., Ambrose, S. A., & Norman, M. K. (2023). How learning works: Eight research-based principles for smart teaching. John Wiley & Sons.
    • Brown, P.C., Roediger, H.L., & McDaniel, M.A. (2014). Make it stick. Harvard University Press.
    • Chew, S.L., & Cerbin, W.J. (2020).The cognitive challenges of effective teaching.The Journal of Economic Education, DOI: 10.1080/00220485.2020.1845266
    • Darby, F., & Lang, J.M. (2019). Small teaching online: Applying learning science in online classes. John Wiley & Sons.
    • Eyler, J.R. (2018). How humans learn: The science and stories behind effective college teaching. West Virginia University Press.
    • Lang, J.M. (2021). Small teaching: Everyday lessons from the science of learning (2nd ed). John Wiley & Sons.
    • provides a crowdsourced annotated bibliography on dozens of teaching and learning topics.
    • This and the offer useful collections of chapters on a variety of topics. 
    • offers information and commentary about using the principles of metacognition in the classroom.
    • explains and promotes retrieval practice as a key aspect of learning.
    • are a group of cognitive psychologists who share their insights on learning through blogs, books, podcasts, and downloadable materials.
    • includes information, learning guides and teaching tools focused on translating cognitive science into practice.
    • Elizabeth and Robert Bjork's at UCLA has a collection of excellent primary sources on learning, memory, metacognition, and more.